yala national park: February 2020

Saturday, February 8, 2020

Yala and the elusive leopard I never saw

After a great start in Sri Lanka appreciating the country’s history, architecture and marine life, it was time to explore some nature and wildlife. Yala National Park is known to have the highest concentration of leopards in the world.

old trees Yala National Park Sri Lanka

An Asian elephant near a lake with old trees Yala National Park Sri Lanka

Otocryptis Wiegmanni

Otocryptis Wiegmanni

The Brown-patched Kangaroo lizard (Otocryptis wiegmanni), also called Wiegmann's Agama or Sri Lankan Kangaroo Lizard, is a small, ground dwelling agamid lizard endemic to the wet zone forests and lower mountain forests (up to 1300 metres) of Sri Lanka. It is commonly seen in the leaf litter of shady rain forests. When perceiving danger, it spurts away quickly on its large hind legs and might eventually climb up a sapling or tree. It feeds on small insects, grubs and tender shoots. It is closely related to the Indian Kangaroo Lizard (Otocryptis beddomii) of the rain forests of South India.

Calotes Ceylonensis

The Painted-lipped lizard, or Sri Lanka Bloodsucker, Calotes ceylonensis is a species of lizard in the Agamidae family. It is one of four Calotes species endemic to Sri Lanka.

Daboia

Daboia is a monotypic genus of venomous Old World viper. The single species, D. russelii, is found in Asia throughout the Indian subcontinent, much of Southeast Asia, southern China and Taiwan. The species was named in honor of Patrick Russell (1726–1805), a Scottish herpetologist who first described many of India's snakes; and the name of the genus is from the Hindi word meaning "that lies hid", or "the lurker." Apart from being a member of the big four snakes in India, Daboia is also one of the species responsible for causing the most snakebite incidents and deaths among all venomous snakes on account of many factors, such as their wide distribution, generally aggressive demeanor, and frequent occurrence in highly populated areas. Two subspecies are currently recognized, including the nominate subspecies described here.

Daboia are commonly known as Russell's viper and chain viper, among other names.

Indian Cobra

The Indian cobra (Naja naja) also known as the Spectacled cobra, Asian cobra or Binocellate cobra is a species of the genus Naja found in the Indian subcontinent and a member of the "big four", the four species which inflict the most snakebites on humans in India. This snake is revered in Indian mythology and culture, and is often seen with snake charmers. It is now protected in India under the Indian Wildlife Protection Act (

Saltwater Crocodile

The saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), also known as saltie, estuarine or Indo-Pacific crocodile, is the largest of all living reptiles, as well as the largest terrestrial and riparian predator in the world. The males of this species can reach sizes of up to 6.7 m (22 ft) and weigh as much as 2,000 kg (4,400 lb). However, an adult male saltwater crocodile is generally between 4.3 and 5.2 m (14 and 17 ft) in length and weighs 400–1,000 kg (880–2,200 lb), rarely growing larger. Females are much smaller and often do not surpass 3 m (9.8 ft). As its name implies, this crocodile can live in salt water, but usually resides in mangrove swamps, estuaries, deltas, lagoons, and lower stretches of rivers. They have the broadest distribution of any modern crocodile, ranging from the eastern coast of India, throughout most of Southeast Asia, stretching south to northern Australia, and historically ranging as far west as just beyond the eastern coast of Africa and as far east as waters off the coast of Japan.

The saltwater crocodile is a formidable and opportunistic hypercarnivorous "apex" ambush predator capable of taking almost any animal that enters its territory, including fish, crustaceans, reptiles, birds and mammals, including other predators. Due to their size and distribution, saltwater crocodiles are the most dangerous extant crocodilian to humans.

Mugger Crocodile

Mugger Crocodile

The mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris = "crocodile of the marsh"), also called the Indian, Indus, Persian, marsh crocodile or simply mugger, is found throughout the Indian subcontinent and the surrounding countries, like Pakistan where the Sindhu crocodile is the National Reptile of Pakistan. It is one of the three crocodilians found in India, the others being the gharial and the saltwater crocodile. It is a medium sized crocodile that mostly inhabits freshwater lakes, ponds, sluggish rivers, swamps and marshes. Males of the species may grow 4 m (13 ft) to 4.5 m (15 ft) in length, but rarely exceed 3.7 m (12 ft). As with other crocodilians, females are smaller. The mugger crocodile has the broadest snout of any extant crocodile, giving it an alligator-like appearance. It is a more heavily armored species with enlarged scutes around the neck. Adults are dark grey or brown, while hatchlings are tan colored.

The mugger crocodile is a skilled predator that preys on a variety of species. Like other crocodilians they are ambush hunters and wait for their prey to come close. They wait camouflaged in the murky waters to launch the attack in the suitable moment. They mostly prey on fish, reptiles, birds and mammals. Reproduction takes place in winter months. Females lay eggs in nests that are holes dug in the sand. Temperature during incubation is the determinant of sex in the young. The mugger crocodile possesses the size to be a serious threat to humans but are not as aggressive as some other species, such as the sympatric saltwater crocodiles. They are also observed to usually avoid areas with saltwater crocodiles. Muggers are fairly social species and tolerate their conspecifics during basking and feeding.

Green Sea Turtle

The green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas), also known as the green turtle, black (sea) turtle, or Pacific green turtle, is a large sea turtle of the family Cheloniidae. It is the only species in the genus Chelonia. Its range extends throughout tropical and subtropical seas around the world, with two distinct populations in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The common name comes from the usually green fat found beneath its carapace.

This sea turtle's dorsoventrally flattened body is covered by a large, teardrop-shaped carapace; it has a pair of large, paddle-like flippers. It is usually lightly colored, although in the eastern Pacific populations parts of the carapace can be almost black. Unlike other members of its family, such as the hawksbill sea turtle, C. mydas is mostly herbivorous. The adults usually inhabit shallow lagoons, feeding mostly on various species of seagrasses.

Like other sea turtles, green sea turtles migrate long distances between feeding grounds and hatching beaches. Many islands worldwide are known as Turtle Island due to green sea turtles nesting on their beaches. Females crawl out on beaches, dig nests and lay eggs during the night. Later, hatchlings emerge and scramble into the water. Those that reach maturity may live to eighty years in the wild.

C. mydas is listed as endangered by the IUCN and CITES and is protected from exploitation in most countries. It is illegal to collect, harm or kill them. In addition, many countries have laws and ordinances to protect nesting areas. However, turtles are still in danger due to human activity. In some countries, turtles and their eggs are hunted for food. Pollution indirectly harms turtles at both population and individual scales. Many turtles die caught in fishing nets. Also, real estate development often causes habitat loss by eliminating nesting beaches.

Hawksbill Sea Turtle

The Hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) is a critically endangered sea turtle belonging to the family Cheloniidae. It is the only extant species in the genus Eretmochelys. The species has a worldwide distribution, with Atlantic and Indo-Pacific subspecies—E. i. imbricata and E. i. bissa, respectively.

The hawksbill's appearance is similar to that of other marine turtles. It has a generally flattened body shape, a protective carapace, and flipper-like arms, adapted for swimming in the open ocean. E. imbricata is easily distinguished from other sea turtles by its sharp, curving beak with prominent tomium, and the saw-like appearance of its shell margins. Hawksbill shells slightly change colors, depending on water temperature. While this turtle lives part of its life in the open ocean, it spends more time in shallow lagoons and coral reefs.

Human fishing practices threaten E. imbricata populations with extinction. The World Conservation Union classifies the hawksbill as critically endangered. Hawksbill shells were the primary source of tortoiseshell material used for decorative purposes. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species outlaws the capture and trade of hawksbill sea turtles and products derived from them.

Loggerhead Sea Turtle

The loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta), or loggerhead, is an oceanic turtle distributed throughout the world. It is a marine reptile, belonging to the family Cheloniidae. The average loggerhead measures around 90 cm (35 in) long when fully grown, although larger specimens of up to 280 cm (110 in) have been discovered. The adult loggerhead sea turtle weighs approximately 135 kg (298 lb), with the largest specimens weighing in at more than 450 kg (1,000 lb). The skin ranges from yellow to brown in color, and the shell is typically reddish-brown. No external differences in gender are seen until the turtle becomes an adult, the most obvious difference being the adult males have thicker tails and shorter plastrons than the females.

The loggerhead sea turtle is found in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, as well as the Mediterranean Sea. It spends most of its life in saltwater and estuarine habitats, with females briefly coming ashore to lay eggs. The loggerhead sea turtle has a low reproductive rate; females lay an average of four egg clutches and then become quiescent, producing no eggs for two to three years. The loggerhead reaches sexual maturity within 17–33 years and has a lifespan of 47–67 years.

The loggerhead sea turtle is omnivorous, feeding mainly on bottom-dwelling invertebrates. Its large and powerful jaws serve as an effective tool for dismantling its prey. Young loggerheads are exploited by numerous predators; the eggs are especially vulnerable to terrestrial organisms. Once the turtles reach adulthood, their formidable size limits predation to large marine animals, such as sharks.

Loggerheads are considered an endangered species and are protected by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. Untended fishing gear is responsible for many loggerhead deaths. Turtles may also suffocate if they are trapped in fishing trawls. Turtle excluder devices have been implemented in efforts to reduce mortality by providing an escape route for the turtles. Loss of suitable nesting beaches and the introduction of exotic predators have also taken a toll on loggerhead populations. Efforts to restore their numbers will require international cooperation, since the turtles roam vast areas of ocean and critical nesting beaches are scattered across several countries.

Olive Ridley Sea Turtle

The olive ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), also known as the Pacific ridley sea turtle, is a medium-sized species of sea turtle found in warm and tropical waters, primarily in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

Leatherback Sea Turtle

The leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), sometimes called the lute turtle or leathery turtle, is the largest of all living turtles and is the fourth-heaviest modern reptile behind three crocodilians. It is the only living species in the genus Dermochelys. It can easily be differentiated from other modern sea turtles by its lack of a bony shell. Instead, its carapace is covered by skin and oily flesh. D. coriacea is the only extant member of the family Dermochelyidae.

Chrysopelea Taprobanica

The Sri Lankan flying snake (Chrysopelea taprobanica) is a species of gliding snake distributed in India and Sri Lanka. It can glide, as with all species of its genus Chrysopelea, by stretching the body into a flattened strip using its ribs. The snake is known as "dangara dandaa - දඟරදන්ඩා" in Sinhala, due to its folding postures.

Boulenger's keelback

Boulenger's keelback (Xenochrophis asperrimus) also known as or Sri Lankan keelback is a non-venomous and common water snake endemic to Sri Lanka. It is found in both the dry and wet zones of the country. The distinctive features of this reptile is its short cylindrical body that is olive brown in colour, large black spots on the front of the body, its unusually long tail, dark head and the two black strips behind its eyes. Being nocturnal and diurnal, this reptile is seen frequenting fresh water bodies where it feeds mainly on fish, crustaceans, amphibians and small reptiles.

Srilankan Krait

Bungarus ceylonicus(Sri Lankan krait ,මුදු කරවලා), is a relatively rare, deadly venomous and endemic elapid snake found mainly in wet and intermediate zones of the island. They live in undisturbed forests, but sometimes in anthropogenic habitats. It has a black, shiny skin crossed with thick white transverse bands that get disappeared with the age. There is a set of other non-venomous snakes in Sri Lanka which belong to the genus Lycodon that mimics the color pattern of Bungarus ceylonicus. But B. ceylonicus can be distinguished by enlarged hexagonal vertebral scales, relatively shiny body scales and undivided subcaudal scales. Also head and the neck are not much distinguishable in kraits when it is compared with the members of genus Licodon.

The Sri Lankan krait is oviparous and feeds on other reptiles, small mammals like rats and skinks. Even thought the snake is highly venomous, it showed a very timid and non-aggressive behavior in the day time and reluctant to bite. It was also observed that it always tried to escape and hide in covered safe places when threatened or sometimes tried to protect itself by hiding its head under the body loops. But during the night they are said to be become very active and could provide fatal bites for a considerable provocation. Being a relatively rare to find and shy reptile, fatal human bites are rare. But deaths have been reported due to envenomation.

Venom of B. ceylonicus is mainly powerful neurotoxins that act on nerve endings near the synaptic clefts of neurons. Also, members of the genus Bungarus produce a mix of presynaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins that need immediate hospitalization and treatments in case of an envenomation.

A specific anti venom has not been developed so far that work effectively for the bites of B. ceylonicus. Even the B. ceylonicus bites are rare; some clinical studies have been done to study the effect of venom on human. The first fatal case report dates back to 1993 for B. ceylonicus(De Silva et al. 1993) which describes a death of a patient within 90 hours after the bite, followed by a cardio-respiratory arrest even with provided treatments such as anti-venom and mechanical ventilation.

Also one such recent case study ( Rathnayaka N. et al, 2017) describes a dry bite occurred at day time which was ended without any envenamation symptoms. According to the report, other incident has been taken place at night while the victim was at sleep with signs and symptoms of moderate envenoming such as tightness in the chest and dyspnoea followed by neuromuscular paralysis. Anotether study (Dalugama C. et al, 2017) describes an envenomation by the same snake which caused bilateral partial ptosis, ophthalmoplegia, facial muscle weakness and dysphagia. According to the authors, that patient had been administered polyvalent Indian anti-venom which showed a poor response for the envenomation of B. ceylonicus. Even the snakes are dangerous; they provide an immense support to maintain a proper balance in an eco system. Habitat destruction an unwanted killing have become the main threat for this relatively rare species.

Friday, February 7, 2020

Hoopoe

While hoopoes are common in Africa, Europe and Asia, you can see them in Sri Lankan National parks such as Wilpattu, Yala and Kumana mostly during the winter season. Hoopoe's beak is an important tool to him. It helps him to dig into the ground to find insects to eat.

Grey-headed Fish-eagle

The grey-headed fish eagle (Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus) is a fish-eating bird of prey from South East Asia. It is a large stocky raptor with adults having dark brown upper body, grey head and lighter underbelly and white legs. Juveniles are paler with darker streaking. It is often confused with the lesser fish eagle (Ichthyophaga humilis) and the Pallas's fish eagle. The lesser fish eagle is similar in plumage but smaller and the Pallas’s fish eagle shares the same habitat and feeding behaviour but is larger with longer wings and darker underparts. Is often called tank eagle in Sri Lanka due to is fondness for irrigation tanks. Ichthyaetus come from the Greek terms meaning fish-eagle, ichtys-fish and aetos-eagle.

Spotted Deer

The spotted deer (Axis axis ceylonensis) are the deer species most likely to be seen in Sri Lanka, living only on grass, leaves and fruits. In protected areas such as Yala National Park, Wilpattu National Park, Wasgamuwa National Park, and Maduru Oya National Park, they are active primarily during the early morning and evening hours, commonly seen near waterholes. The spotted deer are gregarious and form large herds in the dry lowlands, usually living in groups of between 10 – 60 animals, though herds may include up to 100 animals when habitat conditions are exceptional; like an abundance of water, grassland and vegetation.

Friends

Spotted deer are often found in the company of grey langurs, with which they seem to have a symbiotic relationship. Their teamwork forms an ‘enhanced vigilance’ against predators and the spotted deer may gain some extra foraging benefit from the foliage broken by the langurs. The loud alarm call of a spotted deer or langur is a sign that a leopard is hanging around the area, waiting to prey on them.

Enemies

They are a primary prey for Mugger Crocodiles and Sri Lankan Leopards. The Sri Lankan Jackal often looks out for young fawns as prey.

Personality and Anatomy

Deer scent-mark by rubbing their facial glands against grasses and bushes. They also have glands on their feet, which is used to deposit scent when they mark scrapes on the ground.

Only the male spotted deer have antlers. When these grow, the stumps are covered in a temporary skin filled with fine blood vessels called ‘velvet’. Once grown the velvet dries and deer are sometimes seen rubbing off the dead skin. Males shed their antlers after mating. During the rut they engage in duels to assert dominance in a herd. The pair of antlers which adorns the head of a well-built male deer brings out its personality. Leadership of a group is offered only to a strong male which is capable of overpowering other males.

Crested Hawk Eagle

The Crested hawk-eagle is a medium-large raptor at about 60–72 cm in length. It is a relatively slender forest eagle with some subspecies (especially limnaetus) being dimorphic giving the name of "Changeable". This, and also a complicated phylogeny further complicates precise identification.

Normally brown above; white below with barring on the undersides of the flight feathers and tail; black longitudinal streaks on throat and chocolate streaks on breast. Some subspecies have a crest of four feathers, but this is all but absent in others. Sexes alike; female larger, and young birds are often whiter-headed and less patterned.

The wings are long and parallel-sided, and are held flat in flight, which helps to distinguish this species from the similar Mountain Hawk Eagle. In overhead flight, comparatively rounded wings (upturned at tip), longish tail, white body (spotted with brown) and grey underside of wings (streaked and spotted) are leading pointers.

Greater Thick-knee

The Great Thick-knee is classified as Least Concern. Does not qualify for a more at risk category. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category.

The Great Stone-curlew or Great Thick-knee (Esacus recurvirostris) is a large wader which is a resident breeder in tropical southern Asia from Pakistan and the Republic of India, Sri Lanka into South-east Asia. This species prefers gravel banks along rivers or large lakes, and also beaches. A single egg is laid in a bare scrape on the open shingle.

The Great Thick-knee is a very large wader at 49–55 cm, and has a massive 7 cm upturned bill. It has unstreaked grey-brown upperparts and breast, with rest of the underparts whitish. The face has a striking black and white pattern, and the bill is black with a yellow base. The eyes are bright yellow and the legs a duller greenish-yellow.

Green Bee-eater

The Green bee-eater’s vast range stretches from Mauritania in West Africa, to sub-Saharan Africa, as well as the Middle East and India as far in the north as Nepal; in Southeast Asia it is found in central China, Thailand and Vietnam. This species frequents wooded areas where there are scattered trees and bushes, keeping near streams and shores, but also occurs in arid areas that have acacia and date palms, and in dunes, near cultivated areas and big gardens. It likes bare and sandy soils.

Paddyfield Pipit

A sparrow-sized, resident pipit with brown plumage that varies in tones in different parts of its range. All birds have a bi-colored bill with a curve to the tip of the upper bill. The breast is streaked and the upperparts have variable amounts of streaking. Juveniles show distinct and dark mottling on the upperparts. It is common in open habitats such as wetlands, farms, fields, and even large parks. Very similar to Blyth’s and Richard’s Pipits, but relatively compact and has a more distinct eyebrow, fainter or no streaking on the back of the neck, a larger head, and a shorter tail than either Blyth’s or Richard’s. Calls include short “tsip” and “tissip” notes.

Jerdon’s Bushlark – Only seen at Yala

only seen at Yala

3·5–15 cm. Heavy-bodied lark with large bill, short tail and wings, and rather long legs. Has relatively narrow supercilium, usually buffish in front of... read more

Diagnostic song a drawn-out, dry, metallic rattle, “...Variety of open habitats, such as fallow fields with bushes and trees along margins, and scrub-...

Diet poorly known; seeds and invertebrates taken.

Little studied. Season Dec–May, chiefly from Mar, in India; Mar–Aug/Sept, mainly May, in Sri Lanka. In short, low song flight,...

Sedentary.

Not globally threatened. Locally common throughout range. In Sri Lanka, more numerous in dry

Yellow -wattled Lapwing

The next stop held a couple of Malabar Pied Hornbills and a very close Grey headed Fish eagle, while on the way back we got an adult Crested Hawk Eagle. Just before dusk we were treated to the amazing spectacle of around 50 Malabar Pied Hornbills going to roost, a nice end to the day.

Carpenter Bees

There were a lot of large blue Carpenter Bees feeding on the flowers by the beach

Wild Pig

Back into some drier areas 2 Grey-headed Wagtails were feeding, an Indian Roller showed and Ashoka found a Sri Lanka Woodshrike sitting on a nest. Just before lunch we stopped to view a large brackish pool in the distance where a massive Black-necked Stork was visible through the heat haze.

Time for some lunch next to the beach on the site of the former Visitor Centre. This building was washed away by the devastating Tsunami on boxing day 2004 and a plaque commemorates the lives of the 47 people who lost their lives on the reserve. It’s hard to imagine the destruction caused on what now appears to be an idyllic paradise.

Painted Stork

Painted Stork

These tall colorful birds look like they have sat in a pot of pink paint. It is these feathers that gives this stork its descriptive name. Their long distinctive yellow beaks can sense when prey is near. They half open their beaks and swish them from side to side in the water. If they snap at any nearby fish, frog, worm or aquatic insect that they disturb. They also use their feet to disturb the river or lake bed. They are social birds and roost in waterside trees with other storks and water birds.

They use their long wingspan like a glider. Once they are airborne they search out rising late morning thermals and effortlessly rise up in the sky with their wings stretched out. This way they move to different feeding grounds without having to spend to much energy and calories. Gliding is a more economic form of flying compared with flapping your wings.

Breeding season is normally October to November. Look up in the top of the trees to see if you can spot any giant stick nests. They will probably be stork nests, The female Painted Stork normally lays between two to five eggs. The mother sits on the eggs for about four weeks and the chicks fledge in in a further two months. The chicks are liable to predation by crows, hawkes and eagles. The parents have to be on their guard. The parents feed their young by regurgitating fish they have caught. They live for over twenty years.

Black Headed Ibis

These medium sized water birds are very common in Yala National Park. The Black-headed Ibis is sometimes called the Oriental White ibis. I think the first name is more appropriate as it is very descriptive and helps with identification. Their long black wading feet help disturb the silt of river, lake and marsh bed. This ibis then uses its long black curved beak to hunt around in the mud for grubs, fish, snails, worms and small frogs. Like the storks it builds its nest up in the trees out of sticks and lays between two to four eggs.

Little Egret

Though often mistaken for a member of the Ibis family this very common wading bird is the Little Egret. You often see them following Elephants and Water buffalo. They are sometimes so close to the feet of these giant animals that you fear for their safety. It would be so easy for them to be stepped on and squashed. They will nest with other water birds in colonies high up in trees near the water. They male a platform nest with twigs. The female lays between three to five eggs that are kept warm by both adult birds taking turns sitting on the eggs. They young chicks hatch in twenty one to twenty five days. Both parents look after the young who fledge after forty days.

Openbill Strok

These are strange looking storks that appear to have a birth defect. It is the long beak that doesn't not close that gives this stork its descriptive name. Their main preferred food source are aquatic snails and it is thought that the open bill helps this bird with finding and eating them. The edges of their bills have a fine hair brush like feature that is useful in managing a slippery snail shell. The bill is used like a nutcracker and once the snails shell has been removed it eats what is inside.

The Openbill Stork can perform this trick under water. Young chicks do not have the distinctive gap between their beaks. It develops as they grow. Just like the Painted Stork it uses its large wings to soar on the rising late morning thermals to gain height and find new feeding areas. Although it prefers to eat snails the Openbill Stork will also munch on frogs, water snakes, fish and other aquatic insects. Both male and female storks take turn in sitting on the eggs. The female normally lays between two to four eggs. They build a platform style nest high up in the tree tops near water with other water birds. The eggs hatch after twenty five days.

Peacock

There is wealth of wildlife at Yala for visitors to enjoy, including sloth bears, crocodiles, wild peacocks, blue-tailed bee-eaters and monitor lizards. Look out for endemic bird species, including the Sri Lanka grey hornbill and black-capped bulbul.

Cat

The beautiful felines got their name due to the habit of wondering around waterways and catching fish. These stripy creatures with a velvet coat can swim a long distance and sometimes swim underwater to catch their prey. Locally, they are known as “handun diviya” and can be spotted if you’re lucky!

Monkeys

Everyone’s guaranteed to spot the world famous Toque Macaque monkeys while on a safari in the Yala National Park. Endemic to Sri Lanka, these reddish-brown creatures locally known as “rilawa” is one of the most studied primates in the country.

Bear

Shaggy black coated Sri Lankan Sloth Bear is popular amongst animals in Yala National Park. Exclusively found in the subcontinent of India, these bears mainly consume insects. However, berries, roots, and nuts are also part of its meal. With only about 500 bears living in the wild, they have been declared vulnerable .
Best time to see: Sloth bear are shy creatures. There’s a better chance of spotting them in May/June when

Tiger

There are two recognized subspecies of tiger*: the continental (Panthera tigris tigris) and the Sunda (Panthera tigris sondaica). The largest of all the Asian big cats, tigers rely primarily on sight and sound rather than smell for hunting. They typically hunt alone and stalk prey. A tiger can consume more than 80 pounds of meat at one time. On average, tigers give birth to two to four cubs every two years. If all the cubs in one litter die, a second litter may be produced within five months.

Tigers generally gain independence at around two years of age and attain sexual maturity at age three or four for females and four or five years for males. Juvenile mortality is high, however—about half of all cubs do not survive more than two years. Tigers have been known to reach up to 20 years of age in the wild.

Males of the larger subspecies, the continental tiger, may weigh up to 660 pounds. For males of the smaller subspecies—the Sunda tiger—the upper range is at around 310 pounds. Within both subspecies, males are heavier than females.

Tigers are mostly solitary, apart from associations between mother and offspring. Individual tigers have a large territory, and the size is determined mostly by the availability of prey. Individuals mark their domain with urine, feces, rakes, scrapes, and vocalizing.

Across their range, tigers face unrelenting pressures from poaching, retaliatory killings, and habitat loss. They are forced to compete for space with dense and often growing human populations.

*New Subspecies ClassificationsSince 2017, IUCN has recognized two tiger subspecies, commonly referred to as the continental tiger and the Sunda island tiger. All remaining island tigers are found only in Sumatra, with tigers in Java and Bali now extinct. These are popularly known as Sumatran tigers. The continental tigers currently include the Bengal, Malayan, Indochinese and Amur (Siberian) tiger populations, while the Caspian tiger is extinct in the wild. The South China tiger is believed to be functionally extinct.

Owl

Below is a listing of birds (no photos) found in Sri Lanka (Ceylon) - native, introduced or vagrant:

Barn Owl (Tyto alba stertens / javanica)

Brown Hawk Owl (Ninox scutulata) - Range: South Asia from India and Sri Lanka east to western Indonesia and south China

Brown Wood Owl (Strix leptogrammica) - Range: South Asia from India and Sri Lanka east to western Indonesia and south China

Chestnut-backed Owlet (Glaucidium castanonotum) - Range: Sri Lanka

Collared Scops Owl (Otus bakkamoena) - Range: South Asia from eastern Arabia through India, except the far north, and Sri Lanka east to Indonesia

Indian Scops Owl (Otus lettia) - Range: South Asia from northern Pakistan, northern India and the Himalayas east to south China. It is partially migratory, with some birds wintering in India, Sri Lanka and Malaysia

Serendib Scops Owl (Otus thilohoffmanni) - the most recently discovered bird in Sri Lanka since 1868, formally described as a species new to science in 2004. It is also the 24th (according to some authorities the 27th) endemic bird species for Sri Lanka

Spot-bellied Eagle Owl, also known as the Forest Eagle Owl or Ulama / Devil Bird (Bubo nipalensis) - Range: Southern and south-eastern Asia